The formation of new blood vessels, whether by angiogenesis or vasculogenesis, is critical for several physiological processes including embryogenesis, organogenesis and vascular remodeling. Angiogenesis is regulated by a complex and interrelated system of pathways that involve various angiogenic and angiostatic factors (Strieter et al., Eur J Cancer 42:768-778, 2006; Dimberg, Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 341:59-80, 2010). Over- or under-expression of angiogenic or angiostatic factors results in pathologic conditions, as noted for excessive angiogenesis in tumors, or untimely termination of angiogenesis that results in unhealed chronic wounds (Balestrieri et al., Cardiovasc Res 78:250-256, 2008). Researchers have sought to better understand the signaling pathways of these angiogenesis regulators to provide new therapies to modulate these and other pathological conditions.
Recent evidence demonstrates that members of the CXC chemokine family can act as either angiogenic or angiostatic factors, depending on the presence of the ELR (Glu-Leu-Arg) motif in their amino terminus (Strieter et al., J Biol Chem 270:27348-57 1995). Among this small family of chemokines are CXC chemokines CXCL11 (IP-9/ITAC), CXCL10 (IP-10—interferon-γ-inducible 10 kDa protein), and CXCL9 (Mig); all of these lack the canonical N-terminal ELR sequence (Godessart and Kunkel, Curr Opin Immunol 6:670-675, 2001) and bind the ubiquitous CXCR3 chemokine receptor. CXCR3 has two isoforms (CXCR3-A and CXCR3-B) that regulate chemotaxis and proliferation in various cells types (Kelsen et al., Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 287:L584-591, 2004), acting as an angiostatic agent in endothelial cells (Lasagni et al., J Exp Med 197:1537-1549, 2003; Bodnar et al., Circ Res 98:617-625, 2006). All of the CXCR3-binding chemokines (CXCL4/PF4, CXCL9/Mig, CXCL10/IP-10 and CXCL11/IP-9/I-TAC) have been reported to be angiostatic and have antitumor activity via signaling through CXCR3; resulting in inhibition of VEGF and bFGF induced angiogenesis and eventual in vitro and in vivo regression of nascent vessels (Addison et al., J Immunol 165:5269-5277, 2000; Bodnar et al., Circ Res 98:617-625, 2006; Bodnar et al., J Cell Sci 122:2064-2077, 2009; Yates-Binder et al., PLoS ONE 7(7):e40812, 2012).